@c Copyright (C) 1996-2026 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c This is part of the GCC manual.
@c For copying conditions, see the file gcc.texi.

@ignore
@c man begin COPYRIGHT
Copyright @copyright{} 1996-2026 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with the
Invariant Sections being ``GNU General Public License'' and ``Funding
Free Software'', the Front-Cover texts being (a) (see below), and with
the Back-Cover Texts being (b) (see below).  A copy of the license is
included in the gfdl(7) man page.

(a) The FSF's Front-Cover Text is:

     A GNU Manual

(b) The FSF's Back-Cover Text is:

     You have freedom to copy and modify this GNU Manual, like GNU
     software.  Copies published by the Free Software Foundation raise
     funds for GNU development.
@c man end
@c Set file name and title for the man page.
@setfilename gcov
@settitle coverage testing tool
@end ignore

@node Gcov
@chapter @command{gcov}---a Test Coverage Program

@command{gcov} is a tool you can use in conjunction with GCC to
test code coverage in your programs.

@menu
* Gcov Intro::                  Introduction to gcov.
* Invoking Gcov::               How to use gcov.
* Gcov and Optimization::       Using gcov with GCC optimization.
* Gcov Data Files::             The files used by gcov.
* Cross-profiling::             Data file relocation.
* Freestanding Environments::   How to use profiling and test
                                coverage in freestanding environments.
@end menu

@node Gcov Intro
@section Introduction to @command{gcov}
@c man begin DESCRIPTION

@command{gcov} is a test coverage program.  Use it in concert with GCC
to analyze your programs to help create more efficient, faster running
code and to discover untested parts of your program.  You can use
@command{gcov} as a profiling tool to help discover where your
optimization efforts will best affect your code.  You can also use
@command{gcov} along with the other profiling tool, @command{gprof}, to
assess which parts of your code use the greatest amount of computing
time.

Profiling tools help you analyze your code's performance.  Using a
profiler such as @command{gcov} or @command{gprof}, you can find out some
basic performance statistics, such as:

@itemize @bullet
@item
how often each line of code executes

@item
what lines of code are actually executed

@item
how much computing time each section of code uses
@end itemize

Once you know these things about how your code works when compiled, you
can look at each module to see which modules should be optimized.
@command{gcov} helps you determine where to work on optimization.

Software developers also use coverage testing in concert with
testsuites, to make sure software is actually good enough for a release.
Testsuites can verify that a program works as expected; a coverage
program tests to see how much of the program is exercised by the
testsuite.  Developers can then determine what kinds of test cases need
to be added to the testsuites to create both better testing and a better
final product.

You should compile your code without optimization if you plan to use
@command{gcov} because the optimization, by combining some lines of code
into one function, may not give you as much information as you need to
look for `hot spots' where the code is using a great deal of computer
time.  Likewise, because @command{gcov} accumulates statistics by line (at
the lowest resolution), it works best with a programming style that
places only one statement on each line.  If you use complicated macros
that expand to loops or to other control structures, the statistics are
less helpful---they only report on the line where the macro call
appears.  If your complex macros behave like functions, you can replace
them with inline functions to solve this problem.

@command{gcov} creates a logfile called @file{@var{sourcefile}.gcov} which
indicates how many times each line of a source file @file{@var{sourcefile}.c}
has executed.  You can use these logfiles along with @command{gprof} to aid
in fine-tuning the performance of your programs.  @command{gprof} gives
timing information you can use along with the information you get from
@command{gcov}.

@command{gcov} works only on code compiled with GCC@.  It is not
compatible with any other profiling or test coverage mechanism.

@c man end

@node Invoking Gcov
@section Invoking @command{gcov}

@smallexample
gcov @r{[}@var{options}@r{]} @var{files}
@end smallexample

@command{gcov} accepts the following options:

@ignore
@c man begin SYNOPSIS
gcov [@option{-v}|@option{--version}] [@option{-h}|@option{--help}]
     [@option{-a}|@option{--all-blocks}]
     [@option{-b}|@option{--branch-probabilities}]
     [@option{-c}|@option{--branch-counts}]
     [@option{-g}|@option{--conditions}]
     [@option{-e}|@option{--prime-paths}]
     [@option{--prime-paths-lines[=@var{type}]}]
     [@option{--prime-paths-source[=@var{type}]}]
     [@option{-d}|@option{--display-progress}]
     [@option{-f}|@option{--function-summaries}]
     [@option{--include} @var{regex}]
     [@option{--exclude} @var{regex}]
     [@option{-j}|@option{--json-format}]
     [@option{-H}|@option{--human-readable}]
     [@option{-k}|@option{--use-colors}]
     [@option{-l}|@option{--long-file-names}]
     [@option{-m}|@option{--demangled-names}]
     [@option{-M}|@option{--filter-on-demangled}]
     [@option{-n}|@option{--no-output}]
     [@option{-o}|@option{--object-directory} @var{directory|file}]
     [@option{-p}|@option{--preserve-paths}]
     [@option{-q}|@option{--use-hotness-colors}]
     [@option{-r}|@option{--relative-only}]
     [@option{-s}|@option{--source-prefix} @var{directory}]
     [@option{-t}|@option{--stdout}]
     [@option{-u}|@option{--unconditional-branches}]
     [@option{-x}|@option{--hash-filenames}]
     @var{files}
@c man end
@c man begin SEEALSO
gpl(7), gfdl(7), fsf-funding(7), gcc(1) and the Info entry for @file{gcc}.
@c man end
@end ignore

@c man begin OPTIONS
@table @gcctabopt

@item -a
@itemx --all-blocks
Write individual execution counts for every basic block.  Normally gcov
outputs execution counts only for the main blocks of a line.  With this
option you can determine if blocks within a single line are not being
executed.

@item -b
@itemx --branch-probabilities
Write branch frequencies to the output file, and write branch summary
info to the standard output.  This option allows you to see how often
each branch in your program was taken.  Unconditional branches will not
be shown, unless the @option{-u} option is given.

@item -c
@itemx --branch-counts
Write branch frequencies as the number of branches taken, rather than
the percentage of branches taken.

@item -g
@itemx --conditions
Write condition coverage to the output file, and write condition summary info
to the standard output.  This option allows you to see if the conditions in
your program at least once had an independent effect on the outcome of the
boolean expression (modified condition/decision coverage).  This requires you
to compile the source with @option{-fcondition-coverage}.

@item -e
@itemx --prime-paths
Write path coverage to the output file, and write path summary info to
the standard output.  This option allows you to see how many prime paths
were taken at least once.  A path is a sequence of basic blocks.  A path
is simple if it has no repeated blocks (no loops) except maybe the first
and last block, and prime if it is a simple path of maximal length.  For
the regular output this option only includes the number of paths
covered.  For more fine grained information on paths you can use
@option{--prime-paths-lines} or @option{--prime-paths-source}.  With
@option{--json-format} all path details are included in the output.
This requires you to compile the
source with @option{-fpath-coverage}.

@item --prime-paths-lines [=@var{type}]
Write path coverage to the output file, and write path summary info to
the standard output.  This option allows you to see how many prime paths
were taken at least once, and dense report on the covered or uncovered
paths and how to cover them.  This mode is useful for automated
reporting and progress tracking. @var{type} may be omitted, or one of:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@var{uncovered}
- Include the uncovered (not taken) paths.  This is the default.
@item
@var{covered}
- Include the covered (taken) paths.
@item
@var{both}
- Include all paths.  This is equivalent to using both @var{covered} and
@var{uncovered}.
@end itemize

This is an example of @option{--prime-paths-lines} output:

@smallexample
paths covered 12 of 15
path  2 not covered: lines 8 8(false) 11(true) 11 13(true) 13(true) 14 17
path  3 not covered: lines 8 8(false) 11(true) 11 13(true) 13(false) 16 17
path  4 not covered: lines 8 8(false) 11(true) 11 13(false) 16 17
@end smallexample

This means to cover path 2 you must run lines 8, 11, 13, 14, and 17,
evaluting the decision at 8 false and the decisions at 11 and 13 to
@code{false}.

@item --prime-paths-source [=@var{type}]
Write path coverage to the output file, and write path summary info to
the standard output.  This option allows you to see how many prime paths
were taken at least once, and detailed report on the uncovered paths an
how to cover them.  This mode is useful for understanding paths and
interactions between sections of your program. @var{type} may be
omitted, or one of:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@var{uncovered}
- Include the uncovered (not taken) paths.  This is the default.
@item
@var{covered}
- Include the covered (taken) paths.
@item
@var{both}
- Include all paths.  This is equivalent to using both @var{covered} and
@var{uncovered}.
@end itemize

This is an example of @option{--prime-paths-source} output:

@smallexample
path 10 not covered:
BB  3:           8:  for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
BB  3:           9:    total += i;
BB  4: (false)   8:  for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
BB  5: (true)   11:  int v = total > 100 ? 1 : 2;
BB  6:          11:  int v = total > 100 ? 1 : 2;
BB  8: (false)  13:  if (total != 45 && v == 1)
BB 11:          16:    printf ("Success\n");
BB 12:          17:  return 0;
@end smallexample

The first (BB) column is the sequence of basic blocks (see @option{-w}).
The middle column (true/false) is the decision for that line.  The third
column is the line number.  The fourth column is the line itself.  These
lines must be run in this order to cover path 10.

@item -d
@itemx --display-progress
Display the progress on the standard output.

@item -f
@itemx --function-summaries
Output summaries for each function in addition to the file level summary.

@item --include @var{regex}
Include functions matching @var{regex}.  This option makes
@command{gcov} only report on functions that match the extended
regular expression @var{regex}.  This flag can be combined with
@option{--exclude}.  If a function matches both includes and excludes,
the last include/exclude applies.  By default @command{gcov} reports
on all functions, but if a @command{--include} is used then only
functions matching the include will be reported.

@item --exclude @var{regex}
Exclude functions matching @var{regex}.  This option makes
@command{gcov} not report on functions that match the extended regular
expression @var{regex}.  This flag can be combined with
@option{--include}.  If a function matches both includes and excludes,
the last include/exclude applies.  By default @command{gcov} reports
on all functions, and if @option{--exclude} is used then functions
matching it will be omitted.

@item -h
@itemx --help
Display help about using @command{gcov} (on the standard output), and
exit without doing any further processing.

@item -j
@itemx --json-format
Output gcov file in an easy-to-parse JSON intermediate format
which does not require source code for generation.  The JSON
file is compressed with gzip compression algorithm
and the files have @file{.gcov.json.gz} extension.

Structure of the JSON is following:

@smallexample
@{
  "current_working_directory": "foo/bar",
  "data_file": "a.out",
  "format_version": "2",
  "gcc_version": "11.1.1 20210510"
  "files": ["$file"]
@}
@end smallexample

Fields of the root element have following semantics:

@itemize @bullet
@item
@var{current_working_directory}: working directory where
a compilation unit was compiled

@item
@var{data_file}: name of the data file (GCDA)

@item
@var{format_version}: semantic version of the format

Changes in version @emph{2}:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@var{calls}: information about function calls is added
@end itemize

@item
@var{gcc_version}: version of the GCC compiler
@end itemize

Each @var{file} has the following form:

@smallexample
@{
  "file": "a.c",
  "functions": ["$function"],
  "lines": ["$line"]
@}
@end smallexample

Fields of the @var{file} element have following semantics:

@itemize @bullet
@item
@var{file_name}: name of the source file
@end itemize

Each @var{function} has the following form:

@smallexample
@{
  "blocks": 2,
  "blocks_executed": 2,
  "demangled_name": "foo",
  "end_column": 1,
  "end_line": 4,
  "execution_count": 1,
  "name": "foo",
  "start_column": 5,
  "start_line": 1
@}
@end smallexample

Fields of the @var{function} element have following semantics:

@itemize @bullet
@item
@var{blocks}: number of blocks that are in the function

@item
@var{blocks_executed}: number of executed blocks of the function

@item
@var{demangled_name}: demangled name of the function

@item
@var{end_column}: column in the source file where the function ends

@item
@var{end_line}: line in the source file where the function ends

@item
@var{execution_count}: number of executions of the function

@item
@var{name}: name of the function

@item
@var{start_column}: column in the source file where the function begins

@item
@var{start_line}: line in the source file where the function begins
@end itemize

Note that line numbers and column numbers number from 1.  In the current
implementation, @var{start_line} and @var{start_column} do not include
any template parameters and the leading return type but that
this is likely to be fixed in the future.

Each @var{line} has the following form:

@smallexample
@{
  "block_ids": ["$block_id"],
  "branches": ["$branch"],
  "calls": ["$call"],
  "count": 2,
  "conditions": ["$condition"],
  "line_number": 15,
  "unexecuted_block": false,
  "function_name": "foo",
@}
@end smallexample

Branches and calls are present only with @var{-b} option.
Fields of the @var{line} element have following semantics:

@itemize @bullet
@item
@var{block_ids}: IDs of basic blocks that belong to the line

@item
@var{count}: number of executions of the line

@item
@var{line_number}: line number

@item
@var{unexecuted_block}: flag whether the line contains an unexecuted block
(not all statements on the line are executed)

@item
@var{function_name}: a name of a function this @var{line} belongs to
(for a line with an inlined statements can be not set)
@end itemize

Each @var{branch} has the following form:

@smallexample
@{
  "count": 11,
  "destination_block_id": 17,
  "fallthrough": true,
  "source_block_id": 13,
  "throw": false
@}
@end smallexample

Fields of the @var{branch} element have following semantics:

@itemize @bullet
@item
@var{count}: number of executions of the branch

@item
@var{fallthrough}: true when the branch is a fall through branch

@item
@var{throw}: true when the branch is an exceptional branch

@item
@var{isource_block_id}: ID of the basic block where this branch happens

@item
@var{destination_block_id}: ID of the basic block this branch jumps to
@end itemize

Each @var{call} has the following form:

@smallexample
@{
  "destination_block_id": 1,
  "returned": 11,
  "source_block_id": 13
@}
@end smallexample

Fields of the @var{call} element have following semantics:

@itemize @bullet
@item
@var{returned}: number of times a function call returned (call count is equal
to @var{line::count})

@item
@var{isource_block_id}: ID of the basic block where this call happens

@item
@var{destination_block_id}: ID of the basic block this calls continues after return
@end itemize

Each @var{condition} has the following form:

@smallexample
@{
  "count": 4,
  "covered": 2,
  "not_covered_false": [],
  "not_covered_true": [0, 1],
@}

@end smallexample

Fields of the @var{condition} element have following semantics:

@itemize @bullet
@item
@var{count}: number of condition outcomes in this expression

@item
@var{covered}: number of covered condition outcomes in this expression

@item
@var{not_covered_true}: terms, by index, not seen as true in this expression

@item
@var{not_covered_false}: terms, by index, not seen as false in this expression
@end itemize

@item -H
@itemx --human-readable
Write counts in human readable format (like 24.6k).

@item -k
@itemx --use-colors

Use colors for lines of code that have zero coverage.  We use red color for
non-exceptional lines and cyan for exceptional.  Same colors are used for
basic blocks with @option{-a} option.

@item -l
@itemx --long-file-names
Create long file names for included source files.  For example, if the
header file @file{x.h} contains code, and was included in the file
@file{a.c}, then running @command{gcov} on the file @file{a.c} will
produce an output file called @file{a.c##x.h.gcov} instead of
@file{x.h.gcov}.  This can be useful if @file{x.h} is included in
multiple source files and you want to see the individual
contributions.  If you use the @samp{-p} option, both the including
and included file names will be complete path names.

@item -m
@itemx --demangled-names
Display demangled function names in output. The default is to show
mangled function names.

@item -M
@itemx --filter-on-demangled
Make @option{--include} and @option{--exclude} match demangled names.
This does only affects the matching and does not imply
@option{--demangled-names}, but it can safely be combined with it.

@item -n
@itemx --no-output
Do not create the @command{gcov} output file.

@item -o @var{directory|file}
@itemx --object-directory @var{directory}
@itemx --object-file @var{file}
Specify either the directory containing the gcov data files, or the
object path name.  The @file{.gcno}, and
@file{.gcda} data files are searched for using this option.  If a directory
is specified, the data files are in that directory and named after the
input file name, without its extension.  If a file is specified here,
the data files are named after that file, without its extension.

@item -p
@itemx --preserve-paths
Preserve complete path information in the names of generated
@file{.gcov} files.  Without this option, just the filename component is
used.  With this option, all directories are used, with @samp{/} characters
translated to @samp{#} characters, @file{.} directory components
removed and unremoveable @file{..}
components renamed to @samp{^}.  This is useful if sourcefiles are in several
different directories.

@item -q
@itemx --use-hotness-colors

Emit perf-like colored output for hot lines.  Legend of the color scale
is printed at the very beginning of the output file.

@item -r
@itemx --relative-only
Only output information about source files with a relative pathname
(after source prefix elision).  Absolute paths are usually system
header files and coverage of any inline functions therein is normally
uninteresting.

@item -s @var{directory}
@itemx --source-prefix @var{directory}
A prefix for source file names to remove when generating the output
coverage files.  This option is useful when building in a separate
directory, and the pathname to the source directory is not wanted when
determining the output file names.  Note that this prefix detection is
applied before determining whether the source file is absolute.

@item -t
@itemx --stdout
Output to standard output instead of output files.

@item -u
@itemx --unconditional-branches
When branch probabilities are given, include those of unconditional branches.
Unconditional branches are normally not interesting.

@item -v
@itemx --version
Display the @command{gcov} version number (on the standard output),
and exit without doing any further processing.

@item -w
@itemx --verbose
Print verbose informations related to basic blocks and arcs.

@item -x
@itemx --hash-filenames
When using @var{--preserve-paths},
gcov uses the full pathname of the source files to create
an output filename.  This can lead to long filenames that can overflow
filesystem limits.  This option creates names of the form
@file{@var{source-file}##@var{md5}.gcov},
where the @var{source-file} component is the final filename part and
the @var{md5} component is calculated from the full mangled name that
would have been used otherwise.  The option is an alternative
to the @var{--preserve-paths} on systems which have a filesystem limit.

@end table

@command{gcov} should be run with the current directory the same as that
when you invoked the compiler.  Otherwise it will not be able to locate
the source files.  @command{gcov} produces files called
@file{@var{mangledname}.gcov} in the current directory.  These contain
the coverage information of the source file they correspond to.
One @file{.gcov} file is produced for each source (or header) file
containing code,
which was compiled to produce the data files.  The @var{mangledname} part
of the output file name is usually simply the source file name, but can
be something more complicated if the @samp{-l} or @samp{-p} options are
given.  Refer to those options for details.

If you invoke @command{gcov} with multiple input files, the
contributions from each input file are summed.  Typically you would
invoke it with the same list of files as the final link of your executable.

The @file{.gcov} files contain the @samp{:} separated fields along with
program source code.  The format is

@smallexample
@var{execution_count}:@var{line_number}:@var{source line text}
@end smallexample

Additional block information may succeed each line, when requested by
command line option.  The @var{execution_count} is @samp{-} for lines
containing no code.  Unexecuted lines are marked @samp{#####} or
@samp{=====}, depending on whether they are reachable by
non-exceptional paths or only exceptional paths such as C++ exception
handlers, respectively. Given the @samp{-a} option, unexecuted blocks are
marked @samp{$$$$$} or @samp{%%%%%}, depending on whether a basic block
is reachable via non-exceptional or exceptional paths.
Executed basic blocks having a statement with zero @var{execution_count}
end with @samp{*} character and are colored with magenta color with
the @option{-k} option.  This functionality is not supported in Ada.

Note that GCC can completely remove the bodies of functions that are
not needed -- for instance if they are inlined everywhere.  Such functions
are marked with @samp{-}, which can be confusing.
Use the @option{-fkeep-inline-functions} and @option{-fkeep-static-functions}
options to retain these functions and
allow gcov to properly show their @var{execution_count}.

Some lines of information at the start have @var{line_number} of zero.
These preamble lines are of the form

@smallexample
-:0:@var{tag}:@var{value}
@end smallexample

The ordering and number of these preamble lines will be augmented as
@command{gcov} development progresses --- do not rely on them remaining
unchanged.  Use @var{tag} to locate a particular preamble line.

The additional block information is of the form

@smallexample
@var{tag} @var{information}
@end smallexample

The @var{information} is human readable, but designed to be simple
enough for machine parsing too.

When printing percentages, 0% and 100% are only printed when the values
are @emph{exactly} 0% and 100% respectively.  Other values which would
conventionally be rounded to 0% or 100% are instead printed as the
nearest non-boundary value.

When using @command{gcov}, you must first compile your program
with a special GCC option @samp{--coverage}.
This tells the compiler to generate additional information needed by
gcov (basically a flow graph of the program) and also includes
additional code in the object files for generating the extra profiling
information needed by gcov.  These additional files are placed in the
directory where the object file is located.

Running the program will cause profile output to be generated.  For each
source file compiled with @option{-fprofile-arcs}, an accompanying
@file{.gcda} file will be placed in the object file directory.

Running @command{gcov} with your program's source file names as arguments
will now produce a listing of the code along with frequency of execution
for each line.  For example, if your program is called @file{tmp.cpp}, this
is what you see when you use the basic @command{gcov} facility:

@smallexample
$ g++ --coverage tmp.cpp -c
$ g++ --coverage tmp.o
$ a.out
$ gcov tmp.cpp -m
File 'tmp.cpp'
Lines executed:92.86% of 14
Creating 'tmp.cpp.gcov'
@end smallexample

The file @file{tmp.cpp.gcov} contains output from @command{gcov}.
Here is a sample:

@smallexample
        -:    0:Source:tmp.cpp
        -:    0:Working directory:/home/gcc/testcase
        -:    0:Graph:tmp.gcno
        -:    0:Data:tmp.gcda
        -:    0:Runs:1
        -:    0:Programs:1
        -:    1:#include <stdio.h>
        -:    2:
        -:    3:template<class T>
        -:    4:class Foo
        -:    5:@{
        -:    6:  public:
       1*:    7:  Foo(): b (1000) @{@}
------------------
Foo<char>::Foo():
    #####:    7:  Foo(): b (1000) @{@}
------------------
Foo<int>::Foo():
        1:    7:  Foo(): b (1000) @{@}
------------------
       2*:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
------------------
Foo<char>::inc():
    #####:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
------------------
Foo<int>::inc():
        2:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
------------------
        -:    9:
        -:   10:  private:
        -:   11:  int b;
        -:   12:@};
        -:   13:
        -:   14:template class Foo<int>;
        -:   15:template class Foo<char>;
        -:   16:
        -:   17:int
        1:   18:main (void)
        -:   19:@{
        -:   20:  int i, total;
        1:   21:  Foo<int> counter;
        -:   22:
        1:   23:  counter.inc();
        1:   24:  counter.inc();
        1:   25:  total = 0;
        -:   26:
       11:   27:  for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
       10:   28:    total += i;
        -:   29:
       1*:   30:  int v = total > 100 ? 1 : 2;
        -:   31:
        1:   32:  if (total != 45)
    #####:   33:    printf ("Failure\n");
        -:   34:  else
        1:   35:    printf ("Success\n");
        1:   36:  return 0;
        -:   37:@}
@end smallexample

Note that line 7 is shown in the report multiple times.  First occurrence
presents total number of execution of the line and the next two belong
to instances of class Foo constructors.  As you can also see, line 30 contains
some unexecuted basic blocks and thus execution count has asterisk symbol.

When you use the @option{-a} option, you will get individual block
counts, and the output looks like this:

@smallexample
        -:    0:Source:tmp.cpp
        -:    0:Working directory:/home/gcc/testcase
        -:    0:Graph:tmp.gcno
        -:    0:Data:tmp.gcda
        -:    0:Runs:1
        -:    0:Programs:1
        -:    1:#include <stdio.h>
        -:    2:
        -:    3:template<class T>
        -:    4:class Foo
        -:    5:@{
        -:    6:  public:
       1*:    7:  Foo(): b (1000) @{@}
------------------
Foo<char>::Foo():
    #####:    7:  Foo(): b (1000) @{@}
------------------
Foo<int>::Foo():
        1:    7:  Foo(): b (1000) @{@}
------------------
       2*:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
------------------
Foo<char>::inc():
    #####:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
------------------
Foo<int>::inc():
        2:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
------------------
        -:    9:
        -:   10:  private:
        -:   11:  int b;
        -:   12:@};
        -:   13:
        -:   14:template class Foo<int>;
        -:   15:template class Foo<char>;
        -:   16:
        -:   17:int
        1:   18:main (void)
        -:   19:@{
        -:   20:  int i, total;
        1:   21:  Foo<int> counter;
        1:   21-block  0
        -:   22:
        1:   23:  counter.inc();
        1:   23-block  0
        1:   24:  counter.inc();
        1:   24-block  0
        1:   25:  total = 0;
        -:   26:
       11:   27:  for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
        1:   27-block  0
       11:   27-block  1
       10:   28:    total += i;
       10:   28-block  0
        -:   29:
       1*:   30:  int v = total > 100 ? 1 : 2;
        1:   30-block  0
    %%%%%:   30-block  1
        1:   30-block  2
        -:   31:
        1:   32:  if (total != 45)
        1:   32-block  0
    #####:   33:    printf ("Failure\n");
    %%%%%:   33-block  0
        -:   34:  else
        1:   35:    printf ("Success\n");
        1:   35-block  0
        1:   36:  return 0;
        1:   36-block  0
        -:   37:@}
@end smallexample

In this mode, each basic block is only shown on one line -- the last
line of the block.  A multi-line block will only contribute to the
execution count of that last line, and other lines will not be shown
to contain code, unless previous blocks end on those lines.
The total execution count of a line is shown and subsequent lines show
the execution counts for individual blocks that end on that line.  After each
block, the branch and call counts of the block will be shown, if the
@option{-b} option is given.

Because of the way GCC instruments calls, a call count can be shown
after a line with no individual blocks.
As you can see, line 33 contains a basic block that was not executed.

@need 450
When you use the @option{-b} option, your output looks like this:

@smallexample
        -:    0:Source:tmp.cpp
        -:    0:Working directory:/home/gcc/testcase
        -:    0:Graph:tmp.gcno
        -:    0:Data:tmp.gcda
        -:    0:Runs:1
        -:    0:Programs:1
        -:    1:#include <stdio.h>
        -:    2:
        -:    3:template<class T>
        -:    4:class Foo
        -:    5:@{
        -:    6:  public:
       1*:    7:  Foo(): b (1000) @{@}
------------------
Foo<char>::Foo():
function Foo<char>::Foo() called 0 returned 0% blocks executed 0%
    #####:    7:  Foo(): b (1000) @{@}
------------------
Foo<int>::Foo():
function Foo<int>::Foo() called 1 returned 100% blocks executed 100%
        1:    7:  Foo(): b (1000) @{@}
------------------
       2*:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
------------------
Foo<char>::inc():
function Foo<char>::inc() called 0 returned 0% blocks executed 0%
    #####:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
------------------
Foo<int>::inc():
function Foo<int>::inc() called 2 returned 100% blocks executed 100%
        2:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
------------------
        -:    9:
        -:   10:  private:
        -:   11:  int b;
        -:   12:@};
        -:   13:
        -:   14:template class Foo<int>;
        -:   15:template class Foo<char>;
        -:   16:
        -:   17:int
function main called 1 returned 100% blocks executed 81%
        1:   18:main (void)
        -:   19:@{
        -:   20:  int i, total;
        1:   21:  Foo<int> counter;
call    0 returned 100%
branch  1 taken 100% (fallthrough)
branch  2 taken 0% (throw)
        -:   22:
        1:   23:  counter.inc();
call    0 returned 100%
branch  1 taken 100% (fallthrough)
branch  2 taken 0% (throw)
        1:   24:  counter.inc();
call    0 returned 100%
branch  1 taken 100% (fallthrough)
branch  2 taken 0% (throw)
        1:   25:  total = 0;
        -:   26:
       11:   27:  for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
branch  0 taken 91% (fallthrough)
branch  1 taken 9%
       10:   28:    total += i;
        -:   29:
       1*:   30:  int v = total > 100 ? 1 : 2;
branch  0 taken 0% (fallthrough)
branch  1 taken 100%
        -:   31:
        1:   32:  if (total != 45)
branch  0 taken 0% (fallthrough)
branch  1 taken 100%
    #####:   33:    printf ("Failure\n");
call    0 never executed
branch  1 never executed
branch  2 never executed
        -:   34:  else
        1:   35:    printf ("Success\n");
call    0 returned 100%
branch  1 taken 100% (fallthrough)
branch  2 taken 0% (throw)
        1:   36:  return 0;
        -:   37:@}
@end smallexample

For each function, a line is printed showing how many times the function
is called, how many times it returns and what percentage of the
function's blocks were executed.

For each basic block, a line is printed after the last line of the basic
block describing the branch or call that ends the basic block.  There can
be multiple branches and calls listed for a single source line if there
are multiple basic blocks that end on that line.  In this case, the
branches and calls are each given a number.  There is no simple way to map
these branches and calls back to source constructs.  In general, though,
the lowest numbered branch or call will correspond to the leftmost construct
on the source line.

For a branch, if it was executed at least once, then a percentage
indicating the number of times the branch was taken divided by the
number of times the branch was executed will be printed.  Otherwise, the
message ``never executed'' is printed.

For a call, if it was executed at least once, then a percentage
indicating the number of times the call returned divided by the number
of times the call was executed will be printed.  This will usually be
100%, but may be less for functions that call @code{exit} or @code{longjmp},
and thus may not return every time they are called.

When you use the @option{-g} option, your output looks like this:

@smallexample
$ gcov -t -m -g tmp
        -:    0:Source:tmp.cpp
        -:    0:Graph:tmp.gcno
        -:    0:Data:tmp.gcda
        -:    0:Runs:1
        -:    1:#include <stdio.h>
        -:    2:
        -:    3:int
        1:    4:main (void)
        -:    5:@{
        -:    6:  int i, total;
        1:    7:  total = 0;
        -:    8:
       11:    9:  for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
condition outcomes covered 2/2
       10:   10:    total += i;
        -:   11:
       1*:   12:  int v = total > 100 ? 1 : 2;
condition outcomes covered 1/2
condition  0 not covered (true)
        -:   13:
       1*:   14:  if (total != 45 && v == 1)
condition outcomes covered 1/4
condition  0 not covered (true)
condition  1 not covered (true false)
    #####:   15:    printf ("Failure\n");
        -:   16:  else
        1:   17:    printf ("Success\n");
        1:   18:  return 0;
        -:   19:@}
@end smallexample

For every condition the number of taken and total outcomes are
printed, and if there are uncovered outcomes a line will be printed
for each condition showing the uncovered outcome in parentheses.
Conditions are identified by their index -- index 0 is the left-most
condition.  In @code{a || (b && c)}, @var{a} is condition 0, @var{b}
condition 1, and @var{c} condition 2.

An outcome is considered covered if it has an independent effect on
the decision, also known as masking MC/DC (Modified Condition/Decision
Coverage).  In this example the decision evaluates to true and @var{a}
is evaluated, but not covered.  This is because @var{a} cannot affect
the decision independently -- both @var{a} and @var{b} must change
value for the decision to change.

@smallexample
$ gcov -t -m -g tmp
        -:    0:Source:tmp.c
        -:    0:Graph:tmp.gcno
        -:    0:Data:tmp.gcda
        -:    0:Runs:1
        -:    1:#include <stdio.h>
        -:    2:
        1:    3:int main()
        -:    4:@{
        1:    5:  int a = 1;
        1:    6:  int b = 0;
        -:    7:
        1:    8:  if (a && b)
condition outcomes covered 1/4
condition  0 not covered (true false)
condition  1 not covered (true)
    #####:    9:    printf ("Success!\n");
        -:   10:  else
        1:   11:    printf ("Failure!\n");
        -:   12:@}
@end smallexample

@anchor{gcov prime paths example}
When you compile with @option{--coverage -fpath-coverage} and use the
option @option{-e} your output looks like this:

@smallexample
$ gcov -t -e tmp
        -:    0:Source:tmp.cpp
        -:    0:Graph:tmp.gcno
        -:    0:Data:tmp.gcda
        -:    0:Runs:1
        -:    1:#include <stdio.h>
        -:    2:
paths covered 4 of 15
        1:    3:int main ()
        -:    4:@{
        -:    5:  int i, total;
        1:    6:  total = 0;
        -:    7:
       11:    8:  for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
       10:    9:    total += i;
        -:   10:
       1*:   11:  int v = total > 100 ? 1 : 2;
        -:   12:
       1*:   13:  if (total != 45 && v == 1)
    #####:   14:    printf ("Failure\n");
        -:   15:  else
        1:   16:    printf ("Success\n");
        1:   17:  return 0;
        -:   18:@}
@end smallexample

This output is useful to figure out roughly where coverage is missing
and testing how different inputs change the coverage.  The
@option{--prime-paths-source} is a useful tool for understanding paths.

@smallexample
$ gcov -t --prime-paths-source tmp
        -:    0:Source:tmp.cpp
        -:    0:Graph:tmp.gcno
        -:    0:Data:tmp.gcda
        -:    0:Runs:1
        -:    1:#include <stdio.h>
        -:    2:
paths covered 4 of 15
path 1:
BB  2:           3:int main ()
BB  2:           6:  total = 0;
BB  2:           8:  for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
BB  4: (false)   8:  for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
BB  5: (true)   11:  int v = total > 100 ? 1 : 2;
BB  6:          11:  int v = total > 100 ? 1 : 2;
BB  8: (true)   13:  if (total != 45 && v == 1)
BB  9: (true)   13:  if (total != 45 && v == 1)
BB 10:          14:    printf ("Failure\n");
BB 12:          17:  return 0;
@end smallexample

In this mode, gcov will print details on the missing paths.  The first
column lists the sequence of basic blocks (BB).  The second column is
the decision to take at that line if there is one.  The final columns
are the line number and the line itself.  This is useful for
understanding the paths, in particular those that are hard to cover or
even unreachable.  Lines may be repeated, for example the @code{for}
loop, if the same line is a part of multiple basic blocks.  This mode is
intended for humans and good at understanding what code is exercised
under testing or for given inputs.  This output is quite verbose, and
for focusing on specific functions it can be combined with the filters
@option{--include} and @option{--exclude}.

A denser output is available with @option{--prime-paths-lines}, which
looks like this:

@smallexample
        -:    0:Source:tmp.cpp
        -:    0:Graph:tmp.gcno
        -:    0:Data:tmp.gcda
        -:    0:Runs:1
        -:    1:#include <stdio.h>
        -:    2:
paths covered 4 of 15
path  1 not covered: lines 8 8(false) 11(true) 11 13(true) 13(true) 14 17
path  2 not covered: lines 8 8(false) 11(true) 11 13(true) 13(false) 16 17
path  3 not covered: lines 8 8(false) 11(true) 11 13(false) 16 17
path  4 not covered: lines 8 8(false) 11(false) 11 13(true) 13(true) 14 17
path  5 not covered: lines 8 8(false) 11(false) 11 13(true) 13(false) 16 17
path  6 not covered: lines 8 8(false) 11(false) 11 13(false) 16 17
path  8 not covered: lines 9 8(false) 11(true) 11 13(true) 13(true) 14 17
path  9 not covered: lines 9 8(false) 11(true) 11 13(true) 13(false) 16 17
path 10 not covered: lines 9 8(false) 11(true) 11 13(false) 16 17
path 11 not covered: lines 9 8(false) 11(false) 11 13(true) 13(true) 14 17
path 12 not covered: lines 9 8(false) 11(false) 11 13(true) 13(false) 16 17
        1:    3:int main ()
        -:    4:@{
@end smallexample

In this mode, every missing path is expanded using the lines and
decisions like @option{--prime-paths-source} but printed on a single
line.  This mode provides a good overview over the paths and for
tracking how different tests and inputs exercises the code.

The execution counts are cumulative.  If the example program were
executed again without removing the @file{.gcda} file, the count for the
number of times each line in the source was executed would be added to
the results of the previous run(s).  This is potentially useful in
several ways.  For example, it could be used to accumulate data over a
number of program runs as part of a test verification suite, or to
provide more accurate long-term information over a large number of
program runs.

The data in the @file{.gcda} files is saved immediately before the program
exits.  For each source file compiled with @option{-fprofile-arcs}, the
profiling code first attempts to read in an existing @file{.gcda} file; if
the file doesn't match the executable (differing number of basic block
counts) it will ignore the contents of the file.  It then adds in the
new execution counts and finally writes the data to the file.

You can report on a subset of functions by using @option{--include}
and @option{--exclude}.  This is very useful when combined with
@option{--stdout} trying to understand behavior and coverage for a
particular function by running a test, looking at @command{gcov}
output, testing another input, and running @command{gcov} again.

@smallexample
$ gcov -m --stdout --include inc tmp
        -:    0:Source:tmp.cpp
        -:    0:Graph:tmp.gcno
        -:    0:Data:tmp.gcda
        -:    0:Runs:1
       2*:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
------------------
Foo<char>::inc():
    #####:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
------------------
Foo<int>::inc():
        2:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
------------------
@end smallexample

@command{gcov} will match on mangled names by default, which you can
control with the @option{-M} flag.  Note that matching and reporting
are independent, so you can match on mangled names while printing
demangled names, and vice versa.  To report on the @code{int}
instantiation of @code{Foo} matching on mangled and demangled names:

@smallexample
$ gcov -t -m -M tmp --include 'Foo<int>'
        -:    0:Source:tmp.cpp
        -:    0:Graph:tmp.gcno
        -:    0:Data:tmp.gcda
        -:    0:Runs:1
        1:    7:  Foo(): b (1000) @{@}
        2:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
@end smallexample

@smallexample
$ gcov -t -m tmp --include 'FooIi'
        -:    0:Source:tmp.cpp
        -:    0:Graph:tmp.gcno
        -:    0:Data:tmp.gcda
        -:    0:Runs:1
        1:    7:  Foo(): b (1000) @{@}
        2:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
@end smallexample

The arguments to @option{--include} and @option{--exclude} are
extended regular expressions (like @command{grep -E}), so the pattern
@code{in.?} matches both @code{inc} and @code{main}.  If used with
@option{-M} then all @code{int} instantiations of @code{Foo} would
match too.  @option{--include} and @option{--exclude} can be used
multiple times, and if a name matches multiple filters it is the last
one to match which takes preference.  For example, to match
@code{main} and the @code{int} instatiation of @code{inc}, while
omitting the @code{Foo} constructor:

@smallexample
$ gcov -t -m -M --include in --exclude Foo --include '<int>::inc' tmp
        -:    0:Source:tmp.cpp
        -:    0:Graph:tmp.gcno
        -:    0:Data:tmp.gcda
        -:    0:Runs:1
        2:    8:  void inc () @{ b++; @}
        1:   18:main (void)
        -:   19:@{
        -:   20:  int i, total;
        1:   21:  Foo<int> counter;
        -:   22:
        1:   23:  counter.inc();
        1:   24:  counter.inc();
        1:   25:  total = 0;
        -:   26:
       11:   27:  for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
       10:   28:    total += i;
        -:   29:
       1*:   30:  int v = total > 100 ? 1 : 2;
        -:   31:
        1:   32:  if (total != 45)
    #####:   33:    printf ("Failure\n");
        -:   34:  else
        1:   35:    printf ("Success\n");
        1:   36:  return 0;
@end smallexample

@node Gcov and Optimization
@section Using @command{gcov} with GCC Optimization

If you plan to use @command{gcov} to help optimize your code, you must
first compile your program with a special GCC option
@samp{--coverage}.  Aside from that, you can use any
other GCC options; but if you want to prove that every single line
in your program was executed, you should not compile with optimization
at the same time.  On some machines the optimizer can eliminate some
simple code lines by combining them with other lines.  For example, code
like this:

@smallexample
if (a != b)
  c = 1;
else
  c = 0;
@end smallexample

@noindent
can be compiled into one instruction on some machines.  In this case,
there is no way for @command{gcov} to calculate separate execution counts
for each line because there isn't separate code for each line.  Hence
the @command{gcov} output looks like this if you compiled the program with
optimization:

@smallexample
      100:   12:if (a != b)
      100:   13:  c = 1;
      100:   14:else
      100:   15:  c = 0;
@end smallexample

The output shows that this block of code, combined by optimization,
executed 100 times.  In one sense this result is correct, because there
was only one instruction representing all four of these lines.  However,
the output does not indicate how many times the result was 0 and how
many times the result was 1.

Inlineable functions can create unexpected line counts.  Line counts are
shown for the source code of the inlineable function, but what is shown
depends on where the function is inlined, or if it is not inlined at all.

If the function is not inlined, the compiler must emit an out of line
copy of the function, in any object file that needs it.  If
@file{fileA.o} and @file{fileB.o} both contain out of line bodies of a
particular inlineable function, they will also both contain coverage
counts for that function.  When @file{fileA.o} and @file{fileB.o} are
linked together, the linker will, on many systems, select one of those
out of line bodies for all calls to that function, and remove or ignore
the other.  Unfortunately, it will not remove the coverage counters for
the unused function body.  Hence when instrumented, all but one use of
that function will show zero counts.

If the function is inlined in several places, the block structure in
each location might not be the same.  For instance, a condition might
now be calculable at compile time in some instances.  Because the
coverage of all the uses of the inline function will be shown for the
same source lines, the line counts themselves might seem inconsistent.

Long-running applications can use the @code{__gcov_reset} and @code{__gcov_dump}
facilities to restrict profile collection to the program region of
interest. Calling @code{__gcov_reset(void)} will clear all run-time profile
counters to zero, and calling @code{__gcov_dump(void)} will cause the profile
information collected at that point to be dumped to @file{.gcda} output files.
Instrumented applications use a static destructor with priority 99
to invoke the @code{__gcov_dump} function. Thus @code{__gcov_dump}
is executed after all user defined static destructors,
as well as handlers registered with @code{atexit}.

If an executable loads a dynamic shared object via dlopen functionality,
@option{-Wl,--dynamic-list-data} is needed to dump all profile data.

Profiling run-time library reports various errors related to profile
manipulation and profile saving.  Errors are printed into standard error output
or @samp{GCOV_ERROR_FILE} file, if environment variable is used.
In order to terminate immediately after an errors occurs
set @samp{GCOV_EXIT_AT_ERROR} environment variable.
That can help users to find profile clashing which leads
to a misleading profile.

@c man end

@node Gcov Data Files
@section Brief Description of @command{gcov} Data Files

@command{gcov} uses two files for profiling.  The names of these files
are derived from the original @emph{object} file by substituting the
file suffix with either @file{.gcno}, or @file{.gcda}.  The files
contain coverage and profile data stored in a platform-independent format.
The @file{.gcno} files are placed in the same directory as the object
file.  By default, the @file{.gcda} files are also stored in the same
directory as the object file, but the GCC @option{-fprofile-dir} option
may be used to store the @file{.gcda} files in a separate directory.

The @file{.gcno} notes file is generated when the source file is compiled
with the GCC @option{-ftest-coverage} option.  It contains information to
reconstruct the basic block graphs and assign source line numbers to
blocks.

The @file{.gcda} count data file is generated when a program containing
object files built with the GCC @option{-fprofile-arcs} option is executed.
A separate @file{.gcda} file is created for each object file compiled with
this option.  It contains arc transition counts, value profile counts, and
some summary information.

It is not recommended to access the coverage files directly.
Consumers should use the intermediate format that is provided
by @command{gcov} tool via @option{--json-format} option.

@node Cross-profiling
@section Data File Relocation to Support Cross-Profiling

Running the program will cause profile output to be generated.  For each
source file compiled with @option{-fprofile-arcs}, an accompanying @file{.gcda}
file will be placed in the object file directory. That implicitly requires
running the program on the same system as it was built or having the same
absolute directory structure on the target system. The program will try
to create the needed directory structure, if it is not already present.

To support cross-profiling, a program compiled with @option{-fprofile-arcs}
can relocate the data files based on two environment variables:

@itemize @bullet
@item
GCOV_PREFIX contains the prefix to add to the absolute paths
in the object file. Prefix can be absolute, or relative.  The
default is no prefix.

@item
GCOV_PREFIX_STRIP indicates the how many initial directory names to strip off
the hardwired absolute paths. Default value is 0.

@emph{Note:} If GCOV_PREFIX_STRIP is set without GCOV_PREFIX is undefined,
 then a relative path is made out of the hardwired absolute paths.
@end itemize

For example, if the object file @file{/user/build/foo.o} was built with
@option{-fprofile-arcs}, the final executable will try to create the data file
@file{/user/build/foo.gcda} when running on the target system.  This will
fail if the corresponding directory does not exist and it is unable to create
it.  This can be overcome by, for example, setting the environment as
@samp{GCOV_PREFIX=/target/run} and @samp{GCOV_PREFIX_STRIP=1}.  Such a
setting will name the data file @file{/target/run/build/foo.gcda}.

You must move the data files to the expected directory tree in order to
use them for profile directed optimizations (@option{-fprofile-use}), or to
use the @command{gcov} tool.

@node Freestanding Environments
@section Profiling and Test Coverage in Freestanding Environments

In case your application runs in a hosted environment such as GNU/Linux, then
this section is likely not relevant to you.  This section is intended for
application developers targeting freestanding environments (for example
embedded systems) with limited resources.  In particular, systems or test cases
which do not support constructors/destructors or the C library file I/O.  In
this section, the @dfn{target system} runs your application instrumented for
profiling or test coverage.  You develop and analyze your application on the
@dfn{host system}.  We now provide an overview how profiling and test coverage
can be obtained in this scenario followed by a tutorial which can be exercised
on the host system.  Finally, some system initialization caveats are listed.

@subsection Overview

For an application instrumented for profiling or test coverage, the compiler
generates some global data structures which are updated by instrumentation code
while the application runs.  These data structures are called the @dfn{gcov
information}.  Normally, when the application exits, the gcov information is
stored to @file{.gcda} files.  There is one file per translation unit
instrumented for profiling or test coverage.  The function
@code{__gcov_exit()}, which stores the gcov information to a file, is called by
a global destructor function for each translation unit instrumented for
profiling or test coverage.  It runs at process exit.  In a global constructor
function, the @code{__gcov_init()} function is called to register the gcov
information of a translation unit in a global list.  In some situations, this
procedure does not work.  Firstly, if you want to profile the global
constructor or exit processing of an operating system, the compiler generated
functions may conflict with the test objectives.  Secondly, you may want to
test early parts of the system initialization or abnormal program behaviour
which do not allow a global constructor or exit processing.  Thirdly, you need
a filesystem to store the files.

The @option{-fprofile-info-section} GCC option enables you to use profiling and
test coverage in freestanding environments.  This option disables the use of
global constructors and destructors for the gcov information.  Instead, a
pointer to the gcov information is stored in a special linker input section for
each translation unit which is compiled with this option.  By default, the
section name is @code{.gcov_info}.  The gcov information is statically
initialized.  The pointers to the gcov information from all translation units
of an executable can be collected by the linker in a contiguous memory block.
For the GNU linker, the below linker script output section definition can be
used to achieve this:

@smallexample
  .gcov_info      :
  @{
    PROVIDE (__gcov_info_start = .);
    KEEP (*(.gcov_info))
    PROVIDE (__gcov_info_end = .);
  @}
@end smallexample

The linker will provide two global symbols, @code{__gcov_info_start} and
@code{__gcov_info_end}, which define the start and end of the array of pointers
to gcov information blocks, respectively.  The @code{KEEP ()} directive is
required to prevent a garbage collection of the pointers.  They are not
directly referenced by anything in the executable.  The section may be placed
in a read-only memory area.

In order to transfer the profiling and test coverage data from the target to
the host system, the application has to provide a function to produce a
reliable in order byte stream from the target to the host.  The byte stream may
be compressed and encoded using error detection and correction codes to meet
application-specific requirements.  The GCC provided @file{libgcov} target
library provides two functions, @code{__gcov_info_to_gcda()} and
@code{__gcov_filename_to_gcfn()}, to generate a byte stream from a gcov
information bock.  The functions are declared in @code{#include <gcov.h>}.  The
byte stream can be deserialized by the @command{merge-stream} subcommand of the
@command{gcov-tool} to create or update @file{.gcda} files in the host
filesystem for the instrumented application.

@subsection Tutorial

This tutorial should be exercised on the host system.  We will build a program
instrumented for test coverage.  The program runs an application and dumps the
gcov information to @file{stderr} encoded as a printable character stream.  The
application simply decodes such character streams from @file{stdin} and writes
the decoded character stream to @file{stdout} (warning: this is binary data).
The decoded character stream is consumed by the @command{merge-stream}
subcommand of the @command{gcov-tool} to create or update the @file{.gcda}
files.

To get started, create an empty directory.  Change into the new directory.
Then you will create the following three files in this directory

@enumerate
@item
@file{app.h} - a header file included by @file{app.c} and @file{main.c},

@item
@file{app.c} - a source file which contains an example application, and

@item
@file{main.c} - a source file which contains the program main function and code
to dump the gcov information.
@end enumerate

Firstly, create the header file @file{app.h} with the following content:

@smallexample
static const unsigned char a = 'a';

static inline unsigned char *
encode (unsigned char c, unsigned char buf[2])
@{
  buf[0] = c % 16 + a;
  buf[1] = (c / 16) % 16 + a;
  return buf;
@}

extern void application (void);
@end smallexample

Secondly, create the source file @file{app.c} with the following content:

@smallexample
#include "app.h"

#include <stdio.h>

/* The application reads a character stream encoded by encode() from stdin,
   decodes it, and writes the decoded characters to stdout.  Characters other
   than the 16 characters 'a' to 'p' are ignored.  */

static int can_decode (unsigned char c)
@{
  return (unsigned char)(c - a) < 16;
@}

void
application (void)
@{
  int first = 1;
  int i;
  unsigned char c;

  while ((i = fgetc (stdin)) != EOF)
    @{
      unsigned char x = (unsigned char)i;

      if (can_decode (x))
        @{
          if (first)
            c = x - a;
          else
            fputc (c + 16 * (x - a), stdout);
          first = !first;
        @}
      else
        first = 1;
    @}
@}
@end smallexample

Thirdly, create the source file @file{main.c} with the following content:

@smallexample
#include "app.h"

#include <gcov.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

/* The start and end symbols are provided by the linker script.  We use the
   array notation to avoid issues with a potential small-data area.  */

extern const struct gcov_info *const __gcov_info_start[];
extern const struct gcov_info *const __gcov_info_end[];

/* This function shall produce a reliable in order byte stream to transfer the
   gcov information from the target to the host system.  */

static void
dump (const void *d, unsigned n, void *arg)
@{
  (void)arg;
  const unsigned char *c = d;
  unsigned char buf[2];

  for (unsigned i = 0; i < n; ++i)
    fwrite (encode (c[i], buf), sizeof (buf), 1, stderr);
@}

/* The filename is serialized to a gcfn data stream by the
   __gcov_filename_to_gcfn() function.  The gcfn data is used by the
   "merge-stream" subcommand of the "gcov-tool" to figure out the filename
   associated with the gcov information. */

static void
filename (const char *f, void *arg)
@{
  __gcov_filename_to_gcfn (f, dump, arg);
@}

/* The __gcov_info_to_gcda() function may have to allocate memory under
   certain conditions.  Simply try it out if it is needed for your application
   or not.  */

static void *
allocate (unsigned length, void *arg)
@{
  (void)arg;
  return malloc (length);
@}

/* Dump the gcov information of all translation units.  */

static void
dump_gcov_info (void)
@{
  const struct gcov_info *const *info = __gcov_info_start;
  const struct gcov_info *const *end = __gcov_info_end;

  /* Obfuscate variable to prevent compiler optimizations.  */
  __asm__ ("" : "+r" (info));

  while (info != end)
  @{
    void *arg = NULL;
    __gcov_info_to_gcda (*info, filename, dump, allocate, arg);
    fputc ('\n', stderr);
    ++info;
  @}
@}

/* The main() function just runs the application and then dumps the gcov
   information to stderr.  */

int
main (void)
@{
  application ();
  dump_gcov_info ();
  return 0;
@}
@end smallexample

If we compile @file{app.c} with test coverage and no extra profiling options,
then a global constructor (@code{_sub_I_00100_0} here, it may have a different
name in your environment) and destructor (@code{_sub_D_00100_1}) is used to
register and dump the gcov information, respectively.  We also see undefined
references to @code{__gcov_init} and @code{__gcov_exit}:

@smallexample
$ gcc --coverage -c app.c
$ nm app.o
0000000000000000 r a
0000000000000030 T application
0000000000000000 t can_decode
                 U fgetc
                 U fputc
0000000000000000 b __gcov0.application
0000000000000038 b __gcov0.can_decode
0000000000000000 d __gcov_.application
00000000000000c0 d __gcov_.can_decode
                 U __gcov_exit
                 U __gcov_init
                 U __gcov_merge_add
                 U stdin
                 U stdout
0000000000000161 t _sub_D_00100_1
0000000000000151 t _sub_I_00100_0
@end smallexample

Compile @file{app.c} and @file{main.c} with test coverage and
@option{-fprofile-info-section}.  Now, a read-only pointer size object is
present in the @code{.gcov_info} section and there are no undefined references
to @code{__gcov_init} and @code{__gcov_exit}:

@smallexample
$ gcc --coverage -fprofile-info-section -c main.c
$ gcc --coverage -fprofile-info-section -c app.c
$ objdump -h app.o

app.o:     file format elf64-x86-64

Sections:
Idx Name          Size      VMA               LMA               File off  Algn
  0 .text         00000151  0000000000000000  0000000000000000  00000040  2**0
                  CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, RELOC, READONLY, CODE
  1 .data         00000100  0000000000000000  0000000000000000  000001a0  2**5
                  CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, RELOC, DATA
  2 .bss          00000040  0000000000000000  0000000000000000  000002a0  2**5
                  ALLOC
  3 .rodata       0000003c  0000000000000000  0000000000000000  000002a0  2**3
                  CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, READONLY, DATA
  4 .gcov_info    00000008  0000000000000000  0000000000000000  000002e0  2**3
                  CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, RELOC, READONLY, DATA
  5 .comment      0000004e  0000000000000000  0000000000000000  000002e8  2**0
                  CONTENTS, READONLY
  6 .note.GNU-stack 00000000  0000000000000000  0000000000000000  00000336  2**0
                  CONTENTS, READONLY
  7 .eh_frame     00000058  0000000000000000  0000000000000000  00000338  2**3
                  CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, RELOC, READONLY, DATA
@end smallexample

We have to customize the program link procedure so that all the
@code{.gcov_info} linker input sections are placed in a contiguous memory block
with a begin and end symbol.  Firstly, get the default linker script using the
following commands (we assume a GNU linker):

@smallexample
$ ld --verbose | sed '1,/^===/d' | sed '/^===/d' > linkcmds
@end smallexample

Secondly, open the file @file{linkcmds} with a text editor and place the linker
output section definition from the overview after the @code{.rodata} section
definition.  Link the program executable using the customized linker script:

@smallexample
$ gcc --coverage main.o app.o -T linkcmds -Wl,-Map,app.map
@end smallexample

In the linker map file @file{app.map}, we see that the linker placed the
read-only pointer size objects of our objects files @file{main.o} and
@file{app.o} into a contiguous memory block and provided the symbols
@code{__gcov_info_start} and @code{__gcov_info_end}:

@smallexample
$ grep -C 1 "\.gcov_info" app.map

.gcov_info      0x0000000000403ac0       0x10
                0x0000000000403ac0                PROVIDE (__gcov_info_start = .)
 *(.gcov_info)
 .gcov_info     0x0000000000403ac0        0x8 main.o
 .gcov_info     0x0000000000403ac8        0x8 app.o
                0x0000000000403ad0                PROVIDE (__gcov_info_end = .)
@end smallexample

Make sure no @file{.gcda} files are present.  Run the program with nothing to
decode and dump @file{stderr} to the file @file{gcda-0.txt} (first run).  Run
the program to decode @file{gcda-0.txt} and send it to the @command{gcov-tool}
using the @command{merge-stream} subcommand to create the @file{.gcda} files
(second run).  Run @command{gcov} to produce a report for @file{app.c}.  We see
that the first run with nothing to decode results in a partially covered
application:

@smallexample
$ rm -f app.gcda main.gcda
$ echo "" | ./a.out 2>gcda-0.txt
$ ./a.out <gcda-0.txt 2>gcda-1.txt | gcov-tool merge-stream
$ gcov -bc app.c
File 'app.c'
Lines executed:69.23% of 13
Branches executed:66.67% of 6
Taken at least once:50.00% of 6
Calls executed:66.67% of 3
Creating 'app.c.gcov'

Lines executed:69.23% of 13
@end smallexample

Run the program to decode @file{gcda-1.txt} and send it to the
@command{gcov-tool} using the @command{merge-stream} subcommand to update the
@file{.gcda} files.  Run @command{gcov} to produce a report for @file{app.c}.
Since the second run decoded the gcov information of the first run, we have now
a fully covered application:

@smallexample
$ ./a.out <gcda-1.txt 2>gcda-2.txt | gcov-tool merge-stream
$ gcov -bc app.c
File 'app.c'
Lines executed:100.00% of 13
Branches executed:100.00% of 6
Taken at least once:100.00% of 6
Calls executed:100.00% of 3
Creating 'app.c.gcov'

Lines executed:100.00% of 13
@end smallexample

@subsection System Initialization Caveats

The gcov information of a translation unit consists of several global data
structures.  For example, the instrumented code may update program flow graph
edge counters in a zero-initialized data structure.  It is safe to run
instrumented code before the zero-initialized data is cleared to zero.  The
coverage information obtained before the zero-initialized data is cleared to
zero is unusable.  Dumping the gcov information using
@code{__gcov_info_to_gcda()} before the zero-initialized data is cleared to
zero or the initialized data is loaded, is undefined behaviour.  Clearing the
zero-initialized data to zero through a function instrumented for profiling or
test coverage is undefined behaviour, since it may produce inconsistent program
flow graph edge counters for example.
